ECE 119 WEBHUNT # 2
1. Most practical transmitting antennas are divided into two basic classifications, HERTZ (half-wave) ANTENNAS and MARCONI (quarter-wave) ANTENNAS. Hertz antennas are generally installed some distance above the ground and are positioned to radiate either vertically or horizontally. Marconi antennas operate with one end grounded and are mounted perpendicular to the Earth or to a surface acting as a ground. Hertz antennas are generally used for frequencies above 2 megahertz. Marconi antennas are used for frequencies below 2 megahertz and may be used at higher frequencies in certain applications.
2. A complete antenna system consists of three parts: (1) The COUPLING DEVICE, (2) the FEEDER, and (3) the ANTENNA.
3. The factors that determine the type, size, and shape of the antenna are (1) the frequency of operation of the transmitter, (2) the amount of power to be radiated, and (3) the general direction of the receiving set.
4. Ground waves are radio waves that travel near the surface of the Earth (surface and space waves). Sky waves are radio waves that are reflected back to Earth from the ionosphere.
The ground wave is actually composed of two separate component waves. These are known as the SURFACE WAVE and the SPACE WAVE. The determining factor in whether a ground wave component is classified as a space wave or a surface wave is simple. A surface wave travels along the surface of the Earth. A space wave travels over the surface.
5. RECIPROCITY OF ANTENNAS
Fortunately, separate antennas seldom are required for both transmitting and receiving rf energy. Any antenna can transfer energy from space to its input receiver with the same efficiency that it transfers energy from the transmitter into space. Of course, this is assuming that the same frequency is used in both cases. This property of interchangeability of the same antenna for transmitting and receiving is known as antenna RECIPROCITY. Antenna reciprocity is possible because antenna characteristics are essentially the same for sending and receiving electromagnetic energy.
In general, the various properties of an antenna apply equally, regardless of whether you use the antenna for transmitting or receiving. The more efficient a certain antenna is for transmitting, the more efficient it will be for receiving on the same frequency. Likewise, the directive properties of a given antenna also will be the same whether it is used for transmitting or receiving.
6. Isotropic Radiation
Some antenna sources radiate energy equally in all directions. Radiation of this type is known as ISOTROPIC RADIATION. We all know the Sun radiates energy in all directions. The energy radiated from the Sun measured at any fixed distance and from any angle will be approximately the same. Assume that a measuring device is moved around the Sun and stopped at the points indicated in figure 4-9 to make a measurement of the amount of radiation. At any point around the circle, the distance from the measuring device to the Sun is the same. The measured radiation will also be the same. The Sun is therefore considered an isotropic radiator.
Anisotropic Radiation
Most radiators emit (radiate) stronger radiation in one direction than in another. A radiator such as this is referred to as ANISOTROPIC. An example of an anisotropic radiator is an ordinary flashlight. The beam of the flashlight lights only a portion of the space surrounding it. If a circle is drawn with the flashlight as the center, as shown in view B of figure 4-11, the radiated light can be measured at different positions around the circle. Again, as with the isotropic radiator, all positions are the same distance from the center, but at different angles. However, in this illustration the radiated light is measured at 16 different positions on the circle.
7. RADIATION PATTERN OF A DOUBLET
8. 
The figure shows basic current distribution in a real and image antenna. There are certain directions in which the direct wave from the real antenna and the reflected wave from the image are exactly equal in amplitude but opposite in phase. Conversely, there are other directions in which the direct and reflected waves are equal in amplitude and in phase. Therefore, depending on the direction and location of the point at which the field strength is measured, the actual field strength may be (1) twice the field strength from the real antenna alone, (2) zero field strength, or (3) some intermediate value between maximum and minimum. It is this “real” and “image” radiated field that forms the basis for using quarter-wavelength antennas.
This reflected-energy principle is very useful in the lower frequency ranges, although ground reflections occur in the high-frequency range as well. The antenna does not always need to be placed at the Earth’s surface to produce an image. Another method of achieving reflected images is through the use of ground planes. This means that a large reflecting metallic surface is used as a substitute for the ground or Earth. This method is frequently used in the VHF/UHF frequency ranges. The ground plane is sometimes referred to as a “counterpoise”. Together, the rope fans, whips, cages, dipoles, probes, trussed counterpoise and the radials form the reflecting surface, monopoles, and bow stubs. The selection and use of which provides the reflected image.
9. The directional characteristics of a folded dipole are the same as those of a simple dipole. However, the reactance of a folded dipole varies much more slowly as the frequency is varied from resonance. Because of this the folded dipole can be used over a much wider frequency range than is possible with a simple dipole.
10. In general, the greater number of parasitic elements used, the greater the gain. However, a greater number of such elements causes the array to have a narrower frequency response as well as a narrower beamwidth. Therefore, proper adjustment of the antenna is critical. The gain does not increase directly with the number of elements used.
11. DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA TYPES
V ANTENNA
Figure 1.—Basic V antenna.
Figure 2.—Formation of directional radiation pattern from a resonant V antenna.
A V ANTENNA is a bi-directional antenna used widely in military and commercial communications. It consists of two conductors arranged to form a V. Each conductor is fed with currents of opposite polarity. The V is formed at such an angle that the main lobes reinforce along the line bisecting the V and make a very effective directional antenna. Connecting the two-wire feed line to the apex of the V and exciting the two sides of the V 180 degrees out of phase cause the lobes to add along the line of the bisector and to cancel in other directions, as shown in figure 4-36. The lobes are designated 1, 2, 3, and 4 on leg AA', and 5, 6, 7, and 8 on leg BB'. When the proper angle between AA' and BB' is chosen, lobes 1 and 4 have the same direction and combine with lobes 7 and 6, respectively. This combination of two major lobes from each leg results in the formation of two stronger lobes, which lie along an imaginary line bisecting the enclosed angle. Lobes 2, 3, 5, and 8 tend to cancel each other, as do the smaller lobes, which are approximately at right angles to the wire legs of the V. The resultant waveform pattern is shown at the right of the V antenna in figure 4-36.
RHOMBIC ANTENNA
The highest development of the long-wire antenna is the RHOMBIC ANTENNA. It consists of four conductors joined to form a rhombus, or diamond shape. The antenna is placed end to end and terminated by a non-inductive resistor to produce a unidirectional pattern. A rhombic antenna can be made of two obtuse-angle V antennas that are placed side by side, erected in a horizontal plane, and terminated so the antenna is non-resonant and unidirectional.
Figure 4-37.—Basic rhombic antenna. The rhombic antenna is WIDELY used for long-distance, high-frequency transmission and reception. It is one of the most popular fixed-station antennas because it is very useful in point-to-point communications.
Advantages
The rhombic antenna is useful over a wide frequency range. Although some changes in gain, directivity, and characteristic impedance do occur with a change in operating frequency, these changes are small enough to be neglected. The rhombic antenna is much easier to construct and maintain than other antennas of comparable gain and directivity. Only four supporting poles of common heights from 15 to 20 meters are needed for the antenna. The rhombic antenna also has the advantage of being noncritical as far as operation and adjustment are concerned. This is because of the broad frequency characteristics of the antenna. Still another advantage is that the voltages present on the antenna are much lower than those produced by the same input power on a resonant antenna. This is particularly important when high transmitter powers are used or when high-altitude operation is required.
Disadvantages
The rhombic antenna is not without its disadvantages. The principal one is that a fairly large antenna site is required for its erection. Each leg is made at least 1 or 2 wavelengths long at the lowest operating frequency. When increased gain and directivity are required, legs of from 8 to 12 wavelengths are used. These requirements mean that high-frequency rhombic antennas have wires of several hundred feet in length. Therefore, they are used only when a large plot of land is available. Another disadvantage is that the horizontal and vertical patterns depend on each other. If a rhombic antenna is made to have a narrow horizontal beam, the beam is also lower in the vertical direction. Therefore, obtaining high vertical-angle radiation is impossible except with a very broad horizontal pattern and low gain. Rhombic antennas are used, however, for long-distance sky wave coverage at the high frequencies. Under these conditions low vertical angles of radiation (less than 20 degrees) are desirable. With the rhombic antenna, a considerable amount of the input power is dissipated uselessly in the terminating resistor. However, this resistor is necessary to make the antenna unidirectional. The great gain of the antenna more than makes up for this loss. Radiation Patterns Figure 4-38 shows the individual radiation patterns produced by the four legs of the rhombic antenna and the resultant radiation pattern. The principle of operation is the same as for the V and the half-rhombic antennas.
Figure 4-38.—Formation of a rhombic antenna beam.
Terminating Resistor The terminating resistor plays an important part in the operation of the rhombic antenna. Upon it depend the unidirectivity of the antenna and the lack of resonance effects. An antenna should be properly terminated so it will have a constant impedance at its input. Terminating the antenna properly will also allow it to be operated over a wide frequency range without the necessity for changing the coupling adjustments at the transmitter. Discrimination against signals coming from the rear is of great importance for reception. The reduction of back radiation is perhaps of lesser importance for transmission. When an antenna is terminated with resistance, the energy that would be radiated backward is absorbed in the resistor.
TURNSTILE ANTENNA
Figure 4-39.—Turnstile antenna radiation pattern.
Figure 4-40.—Stacked turnstile antennas.
The TURNSTILE ANTENNA is one of the many types that has been developed primarily for omnidirectional vhf communications. The basic turnstile consists of two horizontal half-wave antennas mounted at right angles to each other in the same horizontal plane. When these two antennas are excited with equal currents 90 degrees out of phase, the typical figure-eight patterns of the two antennas merge to produce the nearly circular pattern shown in figure 4-39, view A. Pairs of such antennas are frequently stacked, as shown in figure 4-40. Each pair is called a BAY. In figure 4-40 two bays are used and are spaced 1/2 wavelength apart, and the corresponding elements are excited in phase. These conditions cause a part of the vertical radiation from each bay to cancel that of the other bay. This results in a decrease in energy radiated at high vertical angles and increases the energy radiated in the horizontal plane. Stacking a number of bays can alter the vertical radiation pattern, causing a substantial gain in a horizontal direction without altering the overall horizontal directivity pattern. Figure 4-39, view B, compares the circular vertical radiation pattern of a single-bay turnstile with the sharp pattern of a four-bay turnstile array. A three-dimensional radiation pattern of a four-bay turnstile antenna is shown in figure 4-39, view C.
Labels: antennas, ece119 transmission media, hertz, radiation, web hunt
